Resources
The Breakdown
Important
- Naturalistic observation types: It is very important to consider which type of naturalistic observation you would like to use.
- Training for participant observation: It is very important to get enough training from a supervisor or researcher experienced in this kind of research.
- Bias and perspective in participant observation: People’s dynamics and behaviours can impact the researcher, potentially leading to bias and affecting their perspective when interpreting results.
- Impact of disclosing identity: Letting participants know you are doing the study can impact results.
- Recording interactions in participant observation: All verbal and nonverbal interactions should be recorded in this setting.
- Advantages and disadvantages of structured observation: Advantages include more control, being more specific, and lower time and expenses. Disadvantages include issues with external validity and reactivity.
- Reactivity in structured observation: Reactivity is a problem because everyone knows the researcher is present, and there is no option for disguised observation.
- Steps of observational study: There are six general steps for conducting an observational study.
- Step 1: Identify the research setting/unit: You need to know exactly where the study will be conducted. Permission may be needed in some environments like classrooms.
- Step 2: Develop a protocol: It is very important to develop a protocol detailing what will happen, what is expected to be observed, and potential participant reactions.
- Step 3: Research focus: This indicates what behaviour you will observe first to begin recording.
- Step 4: Researcher role: You need to clearly define your role as either solely an observer or a participant.
- Step 5: Taking notes: This is very important and involves writing down what you see, feel, and participant reactions.
- Importance of nonverbal behaviours: Nonverbal behaviours like body language and facial expressions are very important to note.
- Timeline in notes: A timeline should be included in notes to record when behaviours occur.
- Narrative story in notes: It is also very important to write a narrative story describing observations.
- Step 6: Withdrawal: It is very important to withdraw from the setting slowly or, if identity is known, thank participants and offer contact information for findings.
- Case study purpose: Case studies are suitable for gaining in-depth information about a rare condition that cannot be investigated otherwise.
- Case study problems: Important problems with case studies include issues with internal and external validity, inability to measure causality, and difficulty generalising results.
- Reason for low internal validity in case studies: Internal validity is low because there is no manipulation and less control over factors and environmental noise.
- Reason for low external validity in case studies: External validity is very low due to the small number of participants, often just one, making it difficult to generalise results to the population.
- Causality in case studies: Case studies cannot measure causality as they are non-experimental.
Core concepts
- Non-experimental Research: Research that investigates non-causal relationships, does not involve manipulating variables, and typically has less control than experimental studies, often offering more external validity. Observational studies and case studies are examples of non-experimental research.
- Observational Study: A non-experimental research method aimed at describing behaviour. It can be qualitative or quantitative and structured or unstructured. Key purposes include understanding behaviour, non-verbal behaviours, emotional reactions, and participant experience.
- Structured Observation: A type of observation with predefined behaviours or events, conducted in a controlled situation, often using a checklist to record predictable behaviours. This approach allows quantifying behaviours and offers more control, specificity, and lower time/expenses than unstructured observation. Disadvantages include limited external validity and potential reactivity.
- Unstructured Observation: A more flexible type of observation where researchers record all behaviours, both verbal and nonverbal, without specific predefined expectations. The goal is often qualitative description and exploring behaviours.
- Naturalistic Observation: A type of unstructured observation where behaviours are observed in their natural environment or field setting. It can be disguised, where participants are unaware they are being studied (suitable when privacy is not a concern), or undisguised, where participants are aware. Undisguised observation can lead to reactivity (Hawthorne effect).
- Participant Observation: A type of unstructured observation where the researcher becomes an active member of the group being studied. It can be disguised (researcher identity is hidden) or undisguised (identity is disclosed). An advantage is a better understanding of participants’ experiences, but disadvantages include the researcher’s effect on group dynamics, potential for bias, and forming relationships.
- Steps of Observational Study: A process involving identifying the research setting, developing a detailed protocol, defining the research focus, clarifying the researcher’s role, taking comprehensive notes including non-verbal cues and timelines, and planning withdrawal from the setting.
- Checklist: A tool used in observation, particularly structured observation, to record specific behaviours, often noting their frequency or intensity. Checklists can also be used in unstructured observation.
- Case Study: An in-depth, often qualitative and longitudinal, investigation into a rare condition or individual case. While it can be quantitative, it is primarily descriptive rather than statistical. Case studies are non-experimental and face significant limitations regarding internal and external validity and the ability to establish causality.