Important

• Systematic Use – Imagery must be used in a continuous and systematic manner to qualify as mental training; random or occasional use is unlikely to enhance performance,.
• Polysensory Experience – Effective imagery is not just visual (“visualization”); it must involve as many senses as possible (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic, and gustatory) to create a vivid experience,,.
• Mental Practice Efficacy – Mental practice is better than no practice, but physical practice is superior to mental practice; the combination of both is most effective.
• Skill Level Differences – Successful athletes use imagery more extensively and systematically than less successful athletes and exhibit higher imagery skill.
• Negative Imagery Risks – Imagery can hurt performance if it creates too much anxiety, directs attention to irrelevant factors, is uncontrollable (e.g., imaging crashes), or leads to overconfidence,.
• Ironic Process – Trying to suppress negative images (e.g., “don’t hit it into the net”) often makes them more likely to occur due to the ironic process of mental control; athletes should focus on the desired outcome instead,.
• PETTLEP Model – A functional equivalence checklist for designing imagery interventions comprising Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and Perspective,.
• Real-Time Timing – Imagery should generally be performed in real-time (matching the actual pace of performance) rather than slow motion or fast forward to preserve functional equivalence.
• Internal vs. External Perspective – Elite athletes are more likely to use an internal perspective (through their own eyes), while non-elites often use an external perspective (watching themselves like a movie).

Core Concepts

• Definition of Imagery: An experience that mimics real experience using all relevant senses (polysensory) to create or recreate an experience in the mind without actual physical execution,,.
• Mental Practice: The use of imagery in a continuous, systematic manner to perform specific sport skills repetitively in the mind.
• Polysensory Imagery: The incorporation of visual, auditory, olfactory (smell), tactile (touch), gustatory (taste), and kinesthetic (feeling of movement) senses into the image to enhance vividness,.
• Internal Perspective: Viewing the imagery execution from one’s own vantage point (through one’s own eyes).
• External Perspective: Viewing the imagery execution from the position of an outside observer (like watching a movie of oneself).
• Vividness: The clarity and detail of the image, enhanced by incorporating multiple senses and emotions,.
• Controllability: The ability to manipulate images so they do what you want them to do (e.g., seeing a successful save rather than a goal against),.
• Self-Awareness: Using imagery to become aware of thoughts and emotions that influence performance, often by reviewing past good and bad performances,.
• Imagery Scripts: Written or recorded guides detailing the conditions, behavioral responses, psychological responses, and physiological responses of the imaged scenario to ensure consistency and detail,.

Theories and Frameworks

• Paivio’s Analytic Model (Conceptual Model of Imagery): A framework categorizing imagery into five types based on function (cognitive/motivational) and application (specific/general): Cognitive Specific (CS), Cognitive General (CG), Motivational Specific (MS), Motivational General-Arousal (MG-A), and Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M),,.
• Applied Model of Imagery Use: Suggests that the function of imagery used (e.g., MG-Arousal) should match the desired outcome (e.g., anxiety regulation) for the intervention to be effective,.
• Symbolic Learning Theory: Suggests imagery works by allowing athletes to plan actions, motor sequences, and task goals in advance, creating a “mental blueprint”,.
• Bioinformational Theory: Proposes that images are organized sets of propositions stored in long-term memory, consisting of stimulus characteristics (features of the scenario) and response characteristics (physiological/psychological responses); accessing and modifying these responses enhances performance,,.
• Psychoneuromuscular Theory: Posits that imagery results in subliminal neuromuscular patterns (innervation) identical to actual physical movement, thereby strengthening neural pathways without physical movement,,.
• Functional Equivalence Theory: Suggests that mental imagery and physical execution share the same neurophysiological processes and brain activation areas; imagery should therefore mimic the physical environment and state as closely as possible,.
• Attention-Arousal Set Theory: Proposes that imagery helps athletes reach an optimal level of arousal and selectively attend to task-relevant cues while screening out distractions.
• Triple Code Model (ISM): Breaks imagery down into three components: the Image (I), the Somatic response (S), and the Meaning (M) of the image to the individual, highlighting that the same image script can mean different things to different people,.
• PETTLEP Model: A set of guidelines to enhance functional equivalence in imagery: Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, Perspective,,.

Notable Individuals

• Alan Paivio: Developed the analytic model of imagery (conceptual model) distinguishing between cognitive and motivational functions,.
• Peter Lang: Proposed Bioinformational Theory, emphasizing stimulus and response propositions.
• Marc Jeannerod: Associated with Functional Equivalence theory, noting shared neural networks between imaging and doing.
• Holmes & Collins: Developed the PETTLEP model to guide the practical application of functional equivalence in imagery interventions,.
• Jennifer Heil: Canadian Olympic freestyle skier cited as an example of an athlete who uses extensive, detailed imagery including sensory and emotional elements.
• Al Oerter: Four-time Olympic discus champion who used imagery to prepare for adverse conditions and “disaster” scenarios.
• Annika Sorenstam: Golfer who emphasized positive visualization (“I see a big green… I just grab a club and trust it”).
• Nicola McDermott: High jumper noted for her highly visible pre-performance and post-performance routines (rating jumps),.